Europeanisation of Public Law

Abbreviations

1 Introduction
S. Prechal, R.J.G.M. Widdershoven, J.H. Jans
1 A Meeting of Two Disciplines 3
2 Approach and Structure of the Book 5
3 European Administrative Law: Some Key Concepts 7
4 Sources of Union Law 9
5 Implementation of Union Law in the National Legal Systems 13
6 The Paradox of Institutional Autonomy 18
7 Legality in an Integrated Legal Order and the Powers of National Administrative Authorities 24
8 Mixed Administration 31
9 Conclusion 35
2 Europeanisation of National Administrative Law
S. Prechal
1 Leading Principles 39
2 Constraints on National Administrative Law: The Requirements of Equivalence and Effectiveness 43
3 The Principle of Effective Judicial Protection 53
4 A Mild or a Stringent Test? 58
5 Relationship between Equivalence/Effectiveness and Effective Judicial Protection 61
6 The Trends in Perspective 65
3 Europeanisation via Consistent Interpretation and Direct Effect
J.H. Jans, M.J.M. Verhoeven
1 Introduction 73
2 What is Consistent Interpretation? 74
2.1 General Remarks 74
2.2 Consistent Interpretation and Correct Implementation 78
2.3 Consistent Interpretation and Incorrect Implementation 79
2.4 Limits to Consistent Interpretation 80
2.4.1 National Courts Acting in a Quasi-Legislative Capacity 80
2.4.2 Legal Certainty and Legality: No Contra Legem Interpretation 82
3 Direct Effect 88
3.1 The Conditions for Direct Effect 88
3.2 Direct Effect and Individual Rights 93
3.3 Limits to Discretion 96
3.4 Direct Effect Where Implementation has been Full and Proper? 101
3.5 Direct Effect and Consistent Interpretation Before the Expiration of Transposition Periods? 102
3.6 Direct Effect of Decisions 107
4 Legal Relations 108
4.1 Direct Effect 108
4.1.1 Vertical Direct Effect 108
4.1.2 Horizontal Direct Effect 109
4.1.3 Inverse Direct Effect 110
4.1.4 Direct Effect in Triangular Situations 112
4.2 Consistent Interpretation 118
4.2.1 Vertical Relations 118
4.2.2 Horizontal Relations 119
4.2.3 Inverse Vertical Effect 119
4.2.4 Consistent Interpretation in Triangular Situations 121
5 Consistent Interpretation and Direct Effect: For Whom? 123
5.1 Public Authorities and the Like 123
5.1 Direct Effect and Emanations of the State 123
5.2 Consistent Interpretation by Emanations of the State 128
6 Legal Consequences of Consistent Interpretation and Direct Effect 130
6.1 Consistent Interpretation 130
6.2 Direct Effect 130
4 General Principles of Law
J.E. van den Brink, W. den Ouden, S. Prechal, R.J.G.M.Widdershoven, J.H. Jans
1 Introduction 137
2 Common Aspects 138
2.1 Origin of the Principles 138
2.2 Types of Principle 140
2.3 Functions and Scope of the Principles 141
2.4 The relationship between General Principles and Fundamental Rights 143
2.4.1 Introduction 143
2.4.2 Fundamental Rights as General Principles of Union Law 144
2.4.3 The Charter of Fundamental Rights 148
2.4.3.1 Introduction 148
2.4.3.2 Content of the Charter 149
2.4.3.3 Scope of the Charter and of General Principles 150
2.4.3.4 Relationship between the Charter and the ECHR 157
2.4.3.5 The Charter and National Fundamental Rights 161
2.5 Operation of General Principles in the Member States 163
3 Equality 166
3.1 Introduction 166
3.2 Unwritten Principle of Equality and Written Non-Discrimination Provisions 167
3.3 Function and Substance of the General Equality Principle 169
3.3.1 Independent Test and Interpretation Aid 169
3.3.2 Treating Comparable Situations Equally 170
3.3.3 Justification of Unequal Treatment 172
3.3.4 A Mild Standard of Review 174
3.4 Discrimination 175
3.4.1 The Making of a Distinction on the Ground of a ‘Forbidden’ Characteristic 175
3.4.2. Types of Discrimination 176
3.4.3 Justifications 179
3.4.4 Intensity of Review 181
3.5 Consequences of Infringement of the Principle of Equality 184
3.6 The Significance of the Union Principle of Equality for Domestic Law 185
4 Proportionality 188
4.1 Introduction 188
4.2 The Proportionality Principle in the Member States 188
4.3 The Proportionality Principle in EU Law 191
4.3.1 The Legal Basis 191
4.3.2 The Different Fields of Application 193
4.3.3 The Substance of the Proportionality Principle in EU Law 193
4.3.4 Proportionality in the Review of Union Legal Acts 195
4.3.5 Proportionality and Free Movement 200
4.3.5.1 Suitability 202
4.3.5.2 Necessity 203
4.3.5.3 Proportionality Stricto Sensu 205
4.3.5.4 Relationship with the Principle of Diligence 207
4.3.6 Proportionality and Administrative Enforcement 208
4.4 Proportionality and the Role of National Courts 212
5 Legitimate Expectations 213
5.1 Introduction 213
5.2 Substance of Legitimate Expectations in Union Law 217
5.3 Application of the Principle in Member States 224
5.3.1 Introduction 224
5.3.2 Application of a Codified Version of the Principle in the Member States 226
5.3.3 Limits to the Application of a National Principle of Legitimate Expectations 229
5.3.3.1 The Case Law of the Court of Justice 229
5.3.4 National Case Law 235
5.4 Conclusion 242
6 Rights of Defence 243
6.1 Introduction 243
6.2 The Rights of Defence in the Case Law of the Court of Justice 245
6.3 The Consequences of Infringement of the Rights of Defence 253
6.4 The Influence of the European Rights of Defence and National Administrative Law upon each other 255
7 Transparency 259
7.1 Introduction 259
7.2 The Genesis of the Transparency Principle 260
7.3 Content and Function 263
7.4 Transparency in the Member States 266
5 Administrative Enforcement
A.J.C. de Moor-van Vugt, R.J.G.M. Widdershoven
1 The Rise of Administrative Enforcement in EU Matters 269
1.1 The Lack of Proper Enforcement of EU Law 269
1.2 Monitoring Compliance by the EU – Stimulating Factors 270
1.3 European Influence on National Enforcement of Union Law 272
2 Enforcement of EU law: General Framework and Instrumental Requirements 274
2.1 The Case Law of the Court of Justice 275
2.1.1 General Rules 275
2.1.2 The Requirement of Equivalence (Non-Discrimination) 278
2.1.3 The Requirements of Effectiveness and Dissuasiveness 281
2.2 Enforcement of Union Law in the Member States 283
2.2.1 Administrative Enforcement 284
2.2.2 Criminal Enforcement 285
2.2.3 Private Enforcement 286
2.3 The Process of Europeanisation of National Enforcement 287
2.3.1 The Process of Europeanisation of National Administrative Sanctions 288
2.3.2 The Introduction of Criminal Sanctions 291
2.4 Harmonisation of National Monitoring and Inspection Activities 294
2.5 Oversight of National Enforcement Activities by the EU 296
2.6 Independent EU Powers of Inspection and Enforcement 299
2.6.1 Powers of the Commission 299
2.6.2 OLAF 301
2.6.3 Regulatory Authorities 304
3 Procedural Requirements for Administrative Sanctions 305
3.1 Introduction 305
3.2 The Nature of the Administrative Sanction 306
3.3 Administrative sanctions and procedural rights 310
3.3.1 Principle of Legality 311
3.3.2 Principle of Proportionality 312
3.3.3 The Rights of the Defence 313
3.4.3 Procedural Rights and Punitive Administrative Sanctions 314
3.4.3.1 Culpability and the Presumption of Innocence 314
3.4.3.2 The Right to Remain Silent 316
3.4.3.3 Ne bis in idem 318
3.4 Other Fundamental Rights of the Charter 320
3.5 Protection Through the Four Freedoms 324
4 Transnational Enforcement Cooperation 326
4.1 Transnational Cooperation by National Authorities 326
4.1.1 General Outline 326
4.1.2 Exchange of Information 327
4.1.3 Mutual Assistance in Control Activities 328
4.2 Transnational Evidence 330
4.3 Transnational Execution of Administrative Sanctions 334
5 Conclusions 336
6 Judicial Protection
R. Ortlep, R.J.G.M. Widdershoven
1 Introduction 341
1.1 Effective Judicial Protection in a Shared and Integrated Legal Order 341
1.2 The Court of Justice and the General Court 343
2 Division of Competences between the Court of Justice and the National Courts 344
2.1 The General Picture 344
2.2 The Action for Annulment 347
2.2.1 General 347
2.2.2 The Limited Right of Access of Individuals 348
2.2.3 Limited right of access in environmental matters 351
2.3 Interference with the National Judicial Procedure 353
2.4 Non-contractual Liability of the Union 355
3 The Preliminary Rulings Procedure and other Forms of Judicial Cooperation 358
3.1 Introduction 358
3.2 Scope of the Preliminary Rulings Procedure 360
3.3 Power or Duty to Refer 364
3.4 Procedural Aspects 368
3.5 Other Forms of Judicial Cooperation 372
4 Influence on National Judicial Protection: Some General
Remarks 376
4.1 Introduction 376
4.2 Judge-made and Regulatory Union Standards 377
4.3 The Organization of National Judicial Protection 382
5 Legal Standing (Locus Standi) 386
5.1 Introduction 386
5.2 Ubi Union Jus, Ibi National Remedium 386
5.3 Influence on National Standing Requirements in Particular in Environmental Cases 390
6 Stability of Final National Administrative and Judicial Decisions 395
6.1 Introduction 395
6.2 Fatal Time Limits 396
6.3 Revocation of National Final Administrative Decisions 401
6.3.1 Introduction 401
6.3.2 The Case of Kühne & Heitz 403
6.3.3 The Case of i-21 & Arcor 406
6.3.4 The Case of Byankov 407
6.3.5 Result 408
6.4 The Principle of Res Judicata of Judicial Decisions 409
7 Judicial Scrutiny and Rules of Evidence 412
7.1 Judicial Scrutiny of Administrative Decisions in the Light of Union Law 412
7.2 Rules of Evidence 415
7.2.1 Introduction 415
7.2.2 Influence by Union Legislation 416
7.2.3 Equivalence and Effectiveness 417
7.2.4 Effective Judicial Protection 418
7.2.5 Other General Principles of Union Law and Fundamental Rights 424
8 Ex Officio Application of EU Law 426
8.1 Introduction 426
8.2 The EU Main Rule and its Application in the Member States 428
8.2.1 The EU Main Rule 428
8.2.2 Application in the Member State 431
8.3 Exceptions to the Rule 433
9 Interim Relief Proceedings 435
9.1 Introduction 435
9.2 Interim Relief and Questions of Interpretation 436
9.2 Interim Relief and Questions of Validity 438
9.2.1 The Problem 438
9.2.2 The Union Criteria 440
9.2.3 Practise of the National Courts 442
10 General Findings
7 State Liability
J.H. Jans, A.P.W. Duijkersloot
1 Introduction 449
2 The Genesis of Francovich Liability 450
2.1 The First Step: Francovich and State Liability as a Matter of Principle 450
2.2 The Second Step: Brasserie du Pêcheur and Factortame 453
2.3 Towards a General Theory of Liability: Dillenkofer 455
3 The Conditions for Liability 457
3.1 A ‘Sufficiently Serious’ Breach 458
3.2 Rights for Individuals 463
3.3 A Causal Link 473
3.4 Damages 476
4 Which Organs of the State May Give Rise to Liability? 476
4.1 The Legislature 477
4.2 The Executive 478
4.3 The Judiciary 479
4.4 Subnational Authorities 483
5 Other Relevant Aspects 487
5.1 Obligation to Mitigate the Loss 487
5.2 The Role of National Law and the National Courts 490
5.3 State Liability and Lawful State Actions? 493
6 Conclusion 496
8 Summing Up
J.H. Jans, S. Prechal, R.J.G.M. Widdershoven
1 Influence from the Top Down and the Bottom Up 501
2 Implications for National Administrative Law 502
3 Towards an Administrative Law Ius Commune? 505

Bibliography
Table of Cases
Index