The Constitutional Systems of East Asia

Foreword xiii
Introduction 1

1 East Asian Law and the Public Law Institutions of the People’s Republic of China 1
2 Japanese Constitutional Law: Systemological Considerations 9
3 The Peculiarities of the Institutions of Korean Public Law 12
4 Public Law of the Countries of Southeast Asia Between Complexity and Pluralism 14
5 General Framework and Methodology 19

1 China 21
1.1 Evolutionary Lines of Public Law Institutions in the People’s Republic of China 21
1.1.1 The Historical Events of Constitutionalism in China: The Joint Program of the Chinese People’s Political – Consultative Conference 21
1.1.2 The 1954 Constitution, a Superprimary Regulatory Act Based on the Institutional Set Up of the People’s Republic of China 26
1.1.3 The 1975 Constitution, Epiphenomenon of Legal Nihilism and the Cultural Revolution 28
1.1.4 The 1978 Constitution, During the Transition Phase from the Maoist Model to the Restoration of the State and the Law 31
1.1.5 The 1982 Constitution in Force, Reforms and the New Chinese Course 33
1.2 The Constitutional Structure of the People’s Republic of China, in the Peculiar Dimension of an Ideological Formant 35
1.2.1 The Categories of Fundamental Principles That Underlie the Chinese System of Constitutional Law 35
1.2.2 The Function of the Chinese Communist Party in the Constitutional Framework 36
1.2.3 The Ideological Component of the (Economic) Theory of Law and the State in the Version, Several Times Amended, of the 1982 Chinese Constitution 38
1.2.4 The Fundamental Constitutional Principle of the People’s Democratic Dictatorship 41
1.2.5 The (Long) Path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics 42
1.2.6 State Powers and Popular Sovereignty 44
1.2.7 The “Rule of Law” v. “The Rule of Man” 45
1.2.8 The Principle of EqualityAmongNational Ethnic Communities, with a View to the (Constitutional and Legislative) Protection of Regional/Local and Linguistic Autonomy 49
1.2.9 The Acknowledgment of Constitutional Status to Human Rights 51
1.3 The Pyramidal System of the (National and Territorial/Local) People’s Congresses 54
1.3.1 The National Parliament and the Local Parliaments, the Exclusive Holders of Public Functions and State Power 54
1.3.2 The Structure of the National People’s Congress 57
1.3.3 Follows: The Powers, Responsibilities and Functioning of the National People’s Congress and Its Standing Committee 60
1.3.4 The Structure of the Local People’s Congresses 66
1.3.5 Follows: The Powers, Responsibilities and Functioning of the Local People’s Congresses and Their Relative Standing Committees 69
1.3.6 The Regulation of Normative Production and the Hierarchy of the Sources, in Accordance with the Law on Legislation of 2000 (Amended in 2015) 70
1.3.7 The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference as an Organ of the Parliamentary System 75
1.4 Executive Functions 77
1.4.1 The President of the People’s Republic of China 77
1.4.2 The State Council (Central or National People’s Government) and Local Governments, with a Brief Overview of the Democratic Self-Government System at the Basic Administrative Level 82
1.4.3 The Central Military Commission 89
1.4.4 The Links Between the Executive Functions of Higher Level, with a View to the Rationalization of the Chinese Form of Government 90
1.5 The Administration of Justice 91
1.5.1 Judicial Organs in the Chinese Constitutional Law System 91
1.5.2 Follows: Judicial Review or Supervision (the Re-Opening of a Trial) 101
1.5.3 The Organization and Functioning of the People’s Procuratorates: The National System of Supervisory Commissions and the Constitutional Reform of 2018 107
1.5.4 The Peculiarities of Administrative Justice (the 1989 Law, in Force Since 1990, and the 2014 Law, in Force Since 2015) 112
1.6 Central-Periphery Relations 117
1.6.1 The Hierarchical System of the Sub-State Territorial Entities in China 117
1.6.2 The Political-Administrative Decentralization Bodies: Counties, Districts and Cities of Both County and District Level 121
1.6.3 Village Authorities and “Chinese-Style” Rural Democracy (with a Brief Overview of Local Urban Democracy) 124
1.6.4 The Special Regimes of Hong Kong and Macao (After the So- Called Handover) 132
1.7 Fundamental Rights, Duties and Freedoms 134
1.7.1 The Historical and Conceptual Framework of Fundamental Rights in the People’s Republic of China: The Typically Chinese Characteristics of the Hierarchy Between Constitutional Rights 134
1.7.2 The Catalogue of Citizens’ Rights in the 1982 Constitution 140
1.8 Some Reflections from the Comparative Perspective: Is the suis legibus uti Principle Also Valid for China? 154
1.9 Appendix: The Institutional Design of the “Other” China – A Brief Account on the Constitutional and Legal System of the Republic of China/Taiwan 160
1.9.1 General and Historical Background 160
1.9.2 Political System, Government, Judicial System and Administrative Divisions 164
1.9.3 Rights and Duties of the Citizens 169

2 Japan 171
2.1 A Brief Constitutional History of Japan 171
2.2 The Current Constitution: Important Characteristics 183
2.3 The Figure of the Emperor in the Constitution 186
2.4 Constitutional Pacifism 189
2.5 Legislative Power: The Parliament 195
2.5.1 The Two Houses: Structure 196
2.5.2 The Electoral Law and Rulings on Electoral Districts Colleges 196
2.5.3 Legislation 199
2.6 Executive Power: The Government 200
2.6.1 The Provisions of the Constitution: Composition, Designation and Votes of Confidence 200
2.6.2 The Powers of the Prime Minister and Ministers 202
2.6.2 The Cabinet Legislation Bureau 203
2.7 Judicial Power 204
2.7.1 The Supreme Court 205
2.7.2 The Lower Courts 206
2.7.3 Judges 207
2.7.4 The General Affairs Bureau of the Supreme Court 208
2.7.5 The Control of Constitutionality: General Characteristics 210
2.7.6 A Conservative and Useless Court? 210
2.8 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 212
2.8.1 The Right to Equality: Gender Discrimination in the Workplace 212
2.8.2 Use of the Surname 217
2.8.3 Restrictions on the Possibility of Remarrying 219
2.8.4 Succession 220
2.8.5 Criminal Law 222
2.8.6 Minority Rights 224
2.8.7 Foreigners’ Rights 227
2.8.8 Religious Freedom and the Separation Between State and Religion 232
2.9 Language and Law in Japan 251
2.9.1 National Symbols: Language, Anthem and Flag 251
2.9.2 The Language of the Constitution 252

3 Korea 255
3.1 The Institutional and Juridical Traditions of Korea 255
3.1.1 From Its Origins to the Political Unification of Korea 255
3.1.2 The Chosŏn Dynasty and the Stabilization of Korean Institutional and Juridical Thinking 263
3.1.3 1910 to 1953 269
3.1.4 A Synthesis and Possible Interpretation of Yesterday’s and Today’s Korea 272
3.2 The Institutions and Law of North Korean 279
3.2.1 Methodological Premise 279
3.2.2 Political and Constitutional Framework 280
3.2.3 Juche, Sŏn’gun, Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism 286
3.2.4 A Sui Generis Model 290
3.2.5 Fundamental Rights 296
3.2.6 Governments and Institutions 298
3.2.7 The Normative Sources and the Legal System 301
3.2.8 The “National” and “Exceptional” Economic Laws 306
3.3 The Institutions and Law of South Korea 309
3.3.1 Political and Constitutional Framework 309
3.3.2 The Constitution and Fundamental Rights 312
3.3.3 Government and Institutions 314
3.3.4 Legal System 316
3.3.5 Access to the Legal Professions 319
3.3.6 Economy and Society 322
3.3.7 Competition 330
3.4 The Political Reunification of the Korean Peninsula 333
3.4.1 National Reunification and the Economic Rapprochement Between the Two Koreas 333
3.4.2 Possible Models of Reunification 337

4 South-East Asia 339
4.1 Introduction: Composite Juridical-Institutional Character of the Area and Common Aspects 339
4.2 The Philippines 340
4.2.1 Brief Constitutional History 340
4.2.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 342
4.2.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 343
4.3 Indonesia 344
4.3.1 Brief Constitutional History 344
4.3.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 346
4.3.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 348
4.4 East Timor 349
4.4.1 Brief Constitutional History 349
4.4.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 349
4.4.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 350
4.5 Malaysia 351
4.5.1 Brief Constitutional History 351
4.5.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 351
4.5.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 353
4.6 Singapore 354
4.6.1 Brief Constitutional History 354
4.6.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 355
4.6.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 357
4.7 Thailand 358
4.7.1 Brief Constitutional History 358
4.7.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 359
4.7.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 361
4.8 Vietnam 362
4.8.1 Brief Constitutional History 362
4.8.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 363
4.8.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 367
4.9 Laos 368
4.9.1 Brief Constitutional History 368
4.9.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 369
4.9.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 371
4.10 Cambodia 372
4.10.1 Brief Constitutional History 372
4.10.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 373
4.10.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 375
4.11 Burma-Myanmar 377
4.11.1 Brief Constitutional History 377
4.11.2 The State Powers and the Local Administration 378
4.11.3 Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 380