EU youth justice

Foreword v
Acknowledgements vii
List of abbreviations xix
Frequently used legislation xxi
List of Tables xxv

Part 1. Introduction
Chapter 1. Setting the scene 3
§ 1. Much interest in youth justice but restraint of the EU legislature 3
§ 2. Two motives for the restraint of the EU legislature 7
1. First motive: the question of competence 7
2. Second motive: Member State diversity 8
Chapter 2. Research problem and research questions 11
Chapter 3. Research objectives and relevance 13
Chapter 4. Research method 17
§ 1. Question of competence 17
§ 2. Member State diversity 20
1. Selection of the youth justice systems 20
2. Selection of the parameters for the diversity assessment 26
2.1 Age limits 28
2.2 Specialised youth justice actors 30
2.3 Youth justice reactions 35
2.3.1 Diversion reactions 35
2.3.2 Alternative reactions 40
2.3.3 Custodial reactions 41
2.4 Overview of the comparative research framework 45
3. Expert interviews 47
4. Evaluation of the Member State diversity 50
Chapter 5. Research limitations 53
Chapter 6. Research terminology 55

Part 2. Youth justice matters as part of the EU competence for a judicial cooperation in criminal matters
Chapter 1. Limitations to legal action by the EU 59
Chapter 2. The conferral of a competence in youth justice matters to the EU 63
§ 1. The EU competence in youth matters 63
§ 2. The EU competence in criminal matters 64
1. Historical overview 64
2. Legal basis 68
2.1 Procedural criminal law 68
2.2 Substantive criminal law 71
2.3 Discussion of the legal bases 74
3. Non-binding policy documents and research initiatives of the EU related to juvenile crime 77
3.1 Prevention of juvenile crime 77
3.2 (Procedural) rights of the child 80
3.3 Youth justice 83
4. The EU acquis in criminal law and its scope 84
4.1 Judicial cooperation instruments in criminal matters 84
4.1.1 The mutual recognition instruments 84
i. Introduction: the principle of mutual recognition and grounds for refusal 84
ii. The European Arrest Warrant (EAW) FD 87
iii. The Financial Penalties FD 88
iv. The Custodial Sentences FD 90
v. The Alternative Sanctions FD 92
vi. The European Supervision Order (ESO) FD 94
vii. The Directive on the European Protection Order (EPO) 96
viii. The Directive on the European Investigation Order (EIO) 98
ix. Freezing and Confiscation Orders Regulation 99
x. Rationale of the introduction and nature of the age refusal grounds? 100
xi. National transposition of the age refusal grounds 102
4.1.2 The Procedural Rights Directives 108
i. Procedural rights for juvenile suspects and defendants in the EU 108
ii. National transposition of the Children Directive 113
4.2 Scope of judicial cooperation instruments in criminal matters 115
4.2.1 Three interpretations 115
4.2.2 Autonomous concepts of EU law 118
4.2.3 Scope of application of mutual recognition instruments with an age refusal ground 121
i. At first: exclusion of minors 121
ii. Later on: only exclusion of minors below the age of criminal responsibility 122
iii. Conclusion 126 4.2.4 Scope of application of mutual recognition instruments
without an age refusal ground 127
i. General scope: criminal matters 127
ii. Specific scope: criminal proceedings, including other proceedings with a criminal dimension 129
iii. Conclusion 131
4.2.5 Scope of application of the procedural rights directives 132
i. Restriction to criminal proceedings 132 ii. But recommendations for broad interpretation of
‘criminal proceedings’ 137
iii. Conclusion 140
4.2.6 Different interpretations at different levels 142
4.3 Overview and considerations 145
Chapter 3. The subsidiarity of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters 151
§ 1. Cross-border requirement 151
§ 2. Necessity and clear benefits 152
1. Strengthen mutual trust 153
2. Combat common problems 155
3. Avoid safe havens 156
4. Encourage free movement 157
5. Protection of juvenile suspects and offenders 157
§ 3. Concluding remarks 160

Part 3. Comparative analysis of the youth justice systems of Austria, the
French Community of Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern Ireland
Chapter 1. Introduction to the four selected youth justice systems 165
§ 1. State structure, competences and legislation in youth justice matters 165
1. Austria 165
2. The French Community of Belgium 168
3. The Netherlands 171
4. Northern Ireland 174
§ 2. Basic characteristics of the youth justice systems 179
1. Austria 179
2. French Community of Belgium 181
3. The Netherlands 184
4. Northern Ireland 186
§ 3. Table 188
Chapter 2. Age limits 189
§ 1. Minimum age of youth justice responsibility (MAYR) 189
1. General MAYR 189
2. Raised MAYR 192
3. Youth care when younger than MAYR 193
§ 2. Age of criminal majority (ACM), with a focus on downwards exceptions 195
1. General ACM 195
2. Advanced ACM 197
2.1 Advanced ACM in the French Community of Belgium 198
2.2 Advanced ACM in the Netherlands 200
2.3 Advanced ACM in Northern Ireland 201
3. Delayed ACM 203
3.1 Delayed ACM in Austria 204
3.2 Delayed ACM in the Netherlands 205
§ 3. Detention age limits 207
1. Lower detention age limit 207
2. Upper detention age limit 208
§ 4. Courts age limits 210
§ 5. Detention institution age limits 213
§ 6. Table 217
Chapter 3. Specialisation of youth justice actors 219
§1. Specialisation of the police service 219
1. Introduction 219
2. Existence and organisation of specific police officers dealing with juvenile offenders 221
3. Training of police officers dealing with juvenile suspects 225
4. Table 230
§2. Specialisation of the public prosecution service 230
1. Introduction 230
2. Existence and organisation of specific public prosecutors dealing with juvenile suspects and defendants 232
3. Training of public prosecutors dealing with juvenile suspects and defendants 235
2.1 Austria 235
2.2 French Community of Belgium 237
2.3 The Netherlands 238
2.4 Northern Ireland 240
4. Table 241
§3. Specialisation of the court 242
1. Existence and organisation of specific youth judges or courts 242
1.1 Austria 242
1.2 French Community of Belgium 245
1.3 The Netherlands 247
1.4 Northern Ireland 250
2. Training of judges dealing with juvenile suspects and defendants 252
3. Table 257
§4. Specialisation of the legal profession 259
1. Existence and organisation of specific lawyers dealing with juvenile suspects and defendants 259
1.1 Austria 259
1.2 French Community 260
1.3 The Netherlands 262
1.4 Northern Ireland 263
2. Training of lawyers dealing with juvenile suspects and defendants 265
3. Table 270
§5. Specialisation of support services 271
1. Social services 271
1.1 Youth Court Assistance (JGH) in Austria 271
1.2 Youth Protection Service (SPJ) in the French Community of Belgium 273
1.3 Child Care and Protection Board (RvdK) in the Netherlands 274
1.4 Youth Justice Agency (YJA) in Northern Ireland 277
2. Execution services 278
2.1 NeuStart in Austria 278
2.2 The French Community of Belgium 279
2.3 RvdK and youth probation services in the Netherlands 281
2.4 Youth Justice Agency (YJA) in Northern Ireland 283
3. Table 285
§6. Specialisation of detention institutions 286
1. Existence of separate detention facilities for minors 286
1.1 Separate youth (sections within an adult) prison in Austria 286
1.2 IPPJs as separate institutions in the French Community of Belgium 289
1.3 JJIs as separate institutions in the Netherlands 293
1.4 Juvenile justice and young offenders centre as separate institutions in Northern Ireland 298
2. Organisation of the youth detention institutions: adaptation of infrastructure, day structure and education 301
2.1 Infrastructure 301
2.2 Daily regime, including education opportunities 303
2.2.1 Austria 303
2.2.2 The French Community of Belgium 306
2.2.3 The Netherlands 310
2.2.4 Northern Ireland 313
3. Training of staff members 316
3.1 Austria 316
3.2 French Community of Belgium 318
3.3 The Netherlands 320
3.4 Northern Ireland 321
4. Table 324
Chapter 4. Youth justice reactions 327
§ 1. Diversion reactions 327
1. National diversion reactions 327
1.1 Applicable procedural level and degree of priority 327
1.2 Police diversion 330
1.3 Diversion at the prosecution and court level 334
1.3.1 Non-intervention: dismissal 334
1.3.2 Diversion with intervention 336
i. Austria 336
ii. French Community of Belgium 339
iii. The Netherlands 341
iv. Northern Ireland 344
2. Definitive closure of the case and registration in criminal records 352
2.1 Consequences of diversion reactions in Austria 352
2.2 Consequences of diversion reactions in the French Community 353
2.3 Consequences of diversion reactions in the Netherlands 355
2.4 Consequences of diversion reactions in Northern Ireland 356
3. Table 359
§ 2. Alternative reactions 361
1. Introduction 361
2. Mere declaration of guilt 365
3. Probation period and/or conditions 367
4. Financial reactions 372
5. Restorative justice reactions 375
6. Community-based reactions 378
7. Educational and care-based reactions 382
8. Table 387
§ 3. Custodial reactions 389
1. Police custody 389
1.1 Competent actor and conditions 389
1.2 Duration and review 392
1.3 Alternatives and modalities of implementation 396
1.4 Table 400
2. Remand in custody 401
2.1 Conditions 401
2.2 Duration and review 407
2.3 Alternatives and modalities of implementation 409
2.4 Table 414
3. Custodial sentences 415
1. Life imprisonment 415
2. Custodial sentences in Austria 415
3. Custodial sentences in the French Community 417
4. Custodial sentences in the Netherlands 421
5. Custodial sentences in Northern Ireland 424
6. Modalities of implementation 426
7. Table 431

Part 4. Evaluation of the Member State diversity: opportunities and challenges for an EU cooperation
Chapter 1. Introductory remarks on the four selected youth justice systems 435
§ 1. State structure, competences and legislation in youth justice matters 435
§ 2. Basic characteristics of the youth justice systems 437
Chapter 2. Fundamental (children’s) rights as threshold for an EU cooperation in youth justice matters 439
§ 1. ECJ case law in criminal matters: fundamental rights as ground for refusal 439
§ 2. Extension of the ECJ case law in the light of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters? 442
Chapter 3. Age limits 447
§ 1. Minimum age of youth justice responsibility (MAYR) 447
§ 2. Age of criminal majority (ACM) 448
1. General ACM 448
2. Advanced ACM 449
3. Delayed ACM 452
§ 3. Detention age limits 453
1. Lower detention age limit 453
2. Upper detention age limit 454
§ 4. Court age limits 455
§ 5. Detention institution age limits 455
§ 6. Evaluation 456
1. Cooperation regarding 14- to 18-year-olds 457
2. Obstacles to a cooperation regarding 14- to 18-year-olds 459
3. Concluding remarks 462
Chapter 4. Specialisation of youth justice actors 465
§ 1. Police service 466
§ 2. Public prosecution service 469
§ 3. Courts 470
1. Separation and composition 470
2. Training 472
3. Evaluation of the public prosecution services and the courts 473
§ 4. Lawyers 477
1. Similarities and differences 477
2. Evaluation 479
§ 5. Support services 482
1. Social services 482
2. Execution services 484
3. Evaluation 484
§ 6. Detention institutions 485
1. Separate facilities from adult prisons 485
2. Organisation of the youth detention facilities 489
3. Composition and training of youth detention staff 493
Chapter 5. Youth justice reactions 497
§ 1. Diversion reactions 501
1. Similarities and differences 501
2. Evaluation 505
§ 2. Alternative reactions 508
1. Similarities and differences 508
2. Evaluation 512
§ 3. Custodial reactions 516
1. Police custody 517
1.1 Similarities and differences 517
1.2 Evaluation 519
2. Remand in custody 520
2.1 Similarities and differences 520
2.2 Evaluation of pre-trial detention as encompassing both police custody and remand in custody 523
3. Custodial sentences 529
3.1 Similarities and differences 529
3.2 Evaluation 532

Part 5. Concluding considerations
Chapter 1. The possibility of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters in the light of the EU competence regarding a judicial cooperation in criminal matters 539
§ 1. Scope of EU legislation in criminal matters 540
§ 2. Ways of shaping an EU cooperation in youth justice matters 543
Chapter 2. The feasibility of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters in the light of the diversity of youth justice systems 547
§ 1. Assessment of the diversity between the youth justice systems 547
§ 2. Picture of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters 548
1. Personal scope 548
2. Material scope 549
2.1 Starting point 549
2.2 Investigative measures 550
2.3 Surrender procedures 551
2.4 Transfer of execution of youth justice reactions 552
2.4.1 Intervening diversion reactions 552
2.4.2 Supervision measures 553
2.4.3 Alternative reactions 554
2.4.4 Custodial sentences 555
2.4.5 Adaptation and review of youth justice reactions 556
2.5 Refinements of the minimum standards in the Children Directive 557
§ 3. Beyond the feasibility of an EU cooperation in youth justice matters 559
1. Recommendations for top-down requirements 559
2. Limitations of top-down requirements 561
§ 4. Table 562
Chapter 3. Added value and limitations of the research 565
§ 1. Added value of the research 565
§ 2. Limitations of the research and opportunities for future research 566

Part 6. Bibliography
Bibliography 571
Chapter 1. Legislation 571
§ 1. United Nations 571
§ 2. Council of Europe 571
§ 3. European Union 571
§ 4. National legislation 577
Chapter 2. European case law 583
§ 1. Council of Europe 583
§ 2. European Union 583
Chapter 3. Legal doctrine 584